Featured Tests

Understanding prostate cancer in men

The prostate gland is a male reproductive organ whose primary function is to secrete prostate fluid, one of the components of semen. The muscles of the prostate gland also help propel the seminal fluid into the urethra during ejaculation.

Globally, about one in nine men is at risk of being diagnosed with prostate cancer during his lifetime. African men are more at risk as one in four are prone to developing this condition compared to others. This predisposition is attributed to genetics.

Measuring PSA levels to detect abnormalities in the prostate

Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) is a protein that is produced by the prostate gland, and it helps to keep semen liquefied. PSA is linked to the detection and onset of prostate cancer in men.

A PSA test measures the PSA protein levels in the blood, revealing the presence of abnormalities in the prostate. Usually, high levels of PSA in the blood is an indication that an individual may be at risk or possibly has prostate cancer. Some men have naturally higher PSA levels, so while elevated levels of PSA are detected, only one in four men likely has prostate cancer.

PSA screening has resulted in the early diagnosis of prostate cancer in about 80% of men with the condition.

A high PSA reading may also indicate non-cancerous conditions such as inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) and enlargement of the prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia). Men with low PSA levels may still run the risk of developing prostate cancer.

Assessing your risk

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer among men over the age of 40. It is also more common among men of African descent.

Risk factors:

• Age: Men of African descent over the age of 35 run a higher risk of developing prostate cancer.
• Family history: Having a first degree relative like a father or brother who was diagnosed with prostate cancer increases your risk of developing it. This odd also increases where there are multiple family members within that category with a confirmed diagnosis.
• Random genetic changes.

When do I need to see a Doctor?

The symptoms of prostate cancer often differ from patient to patient, but some signs to look out for include:

• Burning or pain during urination
• Difficulty urinating, or trouble starting and stopping while urinating
• More frequent urges to urinate at night
• Loss of bladder control
• Decreased flow or velocity of the urine stream
• Blood in the urine (hematuria)
• Blood in semen
• Difficulty getting an erection (erectile dysfunction)
• Painful ejaculations

In most cases, symptoms of prostate cancer are not apparent in the early stages of the disease, and other medical conditions may cause any one of these symptoms. Men who have symptoms associated with prostate cancer should have a PSA test done along with a digital rectal exam (DRE).

Depending on the results of the tests, your doctor may recommend additional tests to verify and diagnose your condition. Once a diagnosis is determined, an array of treatment options is available to treat the disease.

Is prostate cancer preventable?

Preventive treatment for prostate cancer has not yet been developed, but maintaining a healthy lifestyle reduces your risk significantly. Annual prostate check-ups in the form of a PSA blood test can further reduce your risk through early detection and prevention of cancer developing.

Prostate cancer can be treated provided that treatment starts as early as possible. Your chances of effective care improve with early detection.

Prostate cancer is a risk for all men as they age, but early detection is critical for proper treatment.

Talk to your doctor if your family has a known history of prostate cancer or you experience signs that you may think is linked to prostate cancer.

Contact an NHDIC partner or a reputable diagnostic facility of your choice for a digital rectal ultrasound scan.

Do you suffer from forgetfulness?

Do you have difficulty remembering names?

Do you have concentration or comprehension issues?

The reason for your forgetfulness may not be a sign of old age. Many Nigerians are confronted with a condition called dementia and often the early symptoms of dementia – confusion, irritability, difficulty performing familiar tasks, and memory loss – are confused with typical signs of ageing.

Understanding dementia

Dementia is a clinical diagnosis characterised by the deterioration in memory, thoughts, and social behaviours, and it often disrupts the flow of daily life. People who are around those who suffer from dementia will notice that the condition affects comprehension, calculation, learning capacity, memory, thinking, orientation, language, and judgment.

Family members often notice the signs of dementia in the person who is suffering from the condition. Most of the time, the patient is not aware of the situation.

Most frequent signs of dementia

Dementia affects each person differently and is dependent upon the impact of the disease/cause and the person’s personality before becoming ill. The signs and symptoms associated with dementia are:

• Memory loss
• Changes in mood and behaviour
• Difficulty in communication and recalling words
• Impairment in visual and spatial abilities (for example: getting lost while driving)
• Difficulties in problem-solving
• Challenges in planning and organization
• Impairment of coordination and motor functions
• Confusion and impairment in orientation
• Changes in personality and being suspicious of people around them
• Symptoms that present as depression and anxiety
• Inappropriate behaviours and lack of social awareness

People in the later stages of dementia can experience bowel and bladder incontinence and an inability to communicate. This disability can leave patients bedbound and severely dependent on people.

Important facts about dementia

• Worldwide, around 50 million people live with dementia, with nearly 60% of those living in low and middle income countries. Ten million new cases of dementia get diagnosed annually.
• Dementia is one of the significant causes of disability and dependency among older people worldwide.
• Dementia has a physical, psychological, social, and economic impact, not only on people with dementia but also on their carers, families, and society at large.
• Although dementia mainly affects older people, it is not a normal part of aging.
• Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia and may contribute to 60 – 70% of cases.

Although age is the most influential known risk factor for dementia, it is not an inevitable consequence of ageing. Ageing is a physiological process, while dementia is a pathology of the brain.

What causes dementia?

Many things can cause dementia. Certain dementia types or dementia-like symptoms are treated by eliminating the cause itself, such as metabolic problems or hormone-related diseases.

Certain risk factors are known to be associated with dementia. However, age is the biggest predictor. Other risk factors include:

• Smoking and alcohol use.
• Atherosclerosis (cardiovascular disease causing the arteries to narrow).
• High levels of “bad” cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein).
• Above-average blood levels of homocysteine (a type of amino acid).
• Diabetes
• Mild cognitive impairment can sometimes, but not always, lead to dementia.

Diagnosing dementia

It is important to diagnose dementia as early as possible to ensure minimum disruption to the patient’s quality of life. There are several ways to test and diagnose dementia.

Laboratory tests

Endocrine diseases often cause dementia symptoms. It is good to test for possible secondary causes of dementia:

• Hypothyroidism
• Vit-B12 deficiency
• Folic acid deficiency
• Iron deficiency
• Copper deficiency
• Vit-E deficiency

Your doctor may request additional tests based on your family and medical history. They may also ask for other diagnostic scans.

Cognitive Tests

Cognitive tests, neurological and psychological evaluations.

Cognitive tests, neurological and psychological assessments are to be held at the clinic when you visit your doctor.

Diagnostic Scans

Your doctor may require scans such as CT, MRI, or PET Scans.

Types of dementia

There are several types of dementia, including:

• Alzheimer’s disease: characterized by “plaques” between the dying cells in the brain and “tangles” within the cells (both are due to protein abnormalities). The brain tissue in a person with Alzheimer’s has progressively fewer nerve cells and connections, and the total brain size shrinks. 
• Dementia with Lewy bodies: a neurodegenerative condition linked to abnormal structures in the brain. The brain changes involve a protein called alpha-synuclein. 
• Mixed dementia:a diagnosis of two or three types occurring together. For instance, a person may show both Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia at the same time.
• Parkinson’s disease: marked by the presence of Lewy bodies. Although Parkinson’s is often considered a disorder of movement, it can also lead to dementia symptoms.
• Huntington’s disease is characterized by specific types of uncontrolled movements but also includes dementia.

There is often a lack of awareness and understanding of dementia, resulting in stigmatization and barriers to diagnosis and care. Studies show that a large percentage of those who live with dementia are not aware of the condition at a very early stage or until diagnosed.

Early diagnosis can help the patient get the treatment they require to minimize the impact of dementia and help stall other associated risk factors that could accelerate the progression of dementia. Family members of the patient can also be better prepared in dealing with the patient and take the necessary steps to ensure the patient remains safe and not in a situation that may cause them harm.

HPV stands for Human Papillomavirus. It’s the most common sexually transmitted infection. HPV is usually harmless and goes away by itself, but some types can lead to cancer or genital warts.

About HPV

HPV is a viral infection that affects the skin or the lining mucosa of the mouth, throat, respiratory tract, or anus. HPV is grouped into low and high-risk types depending on the severity of the infection caused. Low-risk HPV strains usually cause genital warts, while high-risk types can cause cervical cancer. A HPV infection can also lead to cancers of the mouth, throat, anus, or rectum.

How is it transmitted?

The most common way HPV spreads is through skin to skin contact during sexual intercourse (vaginal, anal, and oral) with someone who is a carrier of the virus. In rare cases, HPV may also spread through sharing infected objects like sexual aids, or razors, etc.

HPV is so common that nearly all men and women get it at some point in their lives.

Signs and symptoms of HPV

Many people with HPV don’t develop any symptoms but can still infect others through sexual contact. Symptoms may include warts on the genitals or surrounding skin.

HPV generally goes away on its own without causing health problems. Dry penile and anal swabs (but no blood test) is available for HPV in men with genital wart while the virus is diagnosable where there are visible warts or at the instance of an abnormal smear result in female.

Doctors advise women to routinely screen using either a pap smear or the more sensitive liquid-based cytology (LBC) method for early detection since HPV usually causes pre cancer lesions that can easily be treated and cured before a full-blown cervical cancer develops. These screening tests collect cells from the cervix and investigate them to detect HPV related changes.

There is no prescribed routine test for HPV in men and screening is limited to investigating the presence of genital warts. Some doctors recommend routine anal pap tests for men who engage in high-risk (gay and bi-sexual) activity which increases the risk of anal cancers. Cells from the anus are collected and checked for abnormalities in a laboratory using the LBC method. 

Reduce your risk of getting HPV

Get vaccinated! The Centre for Disease Control (CDC) recommends the HPV vaccine to:

• Teens and young women. The HPV vaccine is given to girls between the age of 9 and 14. Women who are not yet sexually active can receive the vaccine until they are 27 years old.
• Teens and young men. It is recommended for young men until they are 22 years old. Men who engage in high-risk sexual activities or who have weakened immune systems can receive the vaccine until they are 27.
• Teens and young adults who started but did not finish the three-part HPV vaccination series.
• Transgender individuals should also get the HPV vaccine until they are 27

Routine cervical screening: Doctors advise women to get a cervical screening every three years from age 25. Screening is vital in the early detection and treatment of cervical cancer to achieve a cure and the effective management of other HPV strains.

Screening options are:

• Pap smear
• Liquid based cytology (LBC)
• HPV DNA
• LBC + HPV DNA

Pregnancy and HPV

A woman with a confirmed history of HPV is still able to have children. Keep your doctor informed. This information will help your doctor to run routine tests and to monitor new occurrences since rapid cell changes occur during pregnancy.

No link has been found between HPV and miscarriage, premature delivery, or other pregnancy complications. The risk of transmitting the virus to the baby is considered very low.

When last did you have your cervical screening?

If more than two years ago we recommend that you visit an NHDIC facility close to you.

Please don’t become a Nigerian statistic because you thought cervical cancer would not happen to you. More than 22 women die of cervical cancer in Nigeria daily.

What are sexually transmitted infections (STIs)?

STIs are infections that are passed from one person to another through sexual contact. The most common infections include chlamydia, gonorrhoea, genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV), syphilis, and HIV. Many of these STIs do not show symptoms for a long time. Even without symptoms, they can still be harmful and passed on during sex.

How are STIs spread?

You can get an STI by having vaginal, anal or oral sex with someone who has an STI. Anyone sexually active can get an STI. You don’t even have to “go all the way” (have anal or vaginal sex) to get an STI. This is because some STIs, like herpes and HPV, are spread by skin-to-skin contact.

What are the common STIs?

Chlamydia

Chlamydia is a very common STI and infects both men and women. Chlamydia infections in women can lead to severe consequences, including pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain. Most people who have chlamydia have no symptoms. Symptoms may include:

• Abnormal, smelly discharge
• A burning sensation when urinating
• Pain or swelling of the genital area
• Bleeding in the genital area
  

Gonorrhoea

Gonorrhoea can cause infections in the genitals, anus, and throat. It is a widespread infection, especially among young people ages 15-24 years. Symptoms may include:

• A smelly discharge
• A burning sensation when urinating
• Itching around the anus
• Pain or swelling
• Bleeding

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B is a liver disease that results from an infection with the Hepatitis B virus and is a lot more infectious than HIV. It is commonly spread through blood, semen, or other bodily fluids. There is no cure for chronic Hepatitis B. Many people with Hepatitis B do not have symptoms and do not know they are infected. If symptoms occur, they can include:

• Fever
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite
• Upset stomach
• Vomiting
• Dark urine
• Grey-coloured stool
• Joint pain
• Yellow skin and eyes
  

HIV

HIV weakens your immune system by destroying important cells that fight disease and infections. Some people may not feel sick at first while others experience symptoms that include:

• Fever
• Chills
• Rash
• Night sweats
• Muscle ache
• Sore throat
• Fatigue
• Swollen lymph nodes
• Mouth ulcers

Syphilis

Syphilis is an STI that can cause serious health problems if it is not treated. You can get syphilis by direct contact with a syphilis sore during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. You can find sores on the penis, vagina, or anus, in the rectum, on the lips, or in the mouth. Syphilis can spread from an infected mother to her unborn baby. Depending on the stage of the infection, symptoms may present itself as:

• Firm sores that easily go unnoticed
• Skin rashes
• Lesions in the mouth, vagina or anus
• Fever
• Headaches
• Sore throat
• Fatigue
• If left untreated, Syphilis can damage internal organs.

Genital Herpes

You can get genital herpes by having vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who has the infection. You can get infected if you come into contact with:

• the herpes sore
• the virus through saliva (if your partner has an oral herpes infection – HSV-1) or genital secretions (if your partner has a genital herpes infection – HSV-2)
• the skin in the oral or genital area if your partner has either of the infections.
• You can get herpes from a sex partner who does not have a visible sore or who may not know he or she is infected.
• It is also possible to get genital herpes if you receive oral sex from a sex partner who has oral herpes. You will not get herpes from toilet seats, bedding, or swimming pools, or from touching objects around you such as silverware, soap, or towels.

HPV

HPV is the most common STI, and it is most commonly spread during vaginal or anal sex. There are many different types of HPV. Some types can cause health problems, including genital warts and cancers. But some vaccines can stop these health problems from happening.

How common are STIs?

STIs are common, especially among young people and people who have more than one sexual partner. Some of the reasons for this:

• Many people have more than one sex partner
• Many people do not get the recommended STI tests
• Many people do not seek treatment when they show symptoms
• Many people are hesitant to talk openly and honestly with a doctor or nurse about their sex lives.
• Many people are scared of stigma, so they remain silent about having an infection

What can I do to protect myself?

• Get tested for STIs before you and your partner do decide to have sex.
• Always use a condom from start to finish every time you have oral, anal, or vaginal sex.
• Mutual monogamy means that you and your partner both agree only to have sexual contact with each other. This can help protect against STDs, as long as you’ve both been tested and know you’re STD-free.
• Get vaccinated against HPV and hepatitis B.
• Young women may have special needs to protect their fertility. Talk to your doctor or nurse about regular cervical cancer screening, and chlamydia and gonorrhoea testing.
• Avoid mixing alcohol and/or recreational drugs with sex. If you use alcohol and drugs, you are more likely to take risks like not using a condom or, having sex with someone you usually wouldn’t have sex with.
• Abstain from having sex. That means not having any vaginal, anal, or oral sex.
  

If I get an STI, how will I know?

Many STIs don’t cause any symptoms that you would notice while at other times, you can experience any of the common symptoms outlined above. The only way to know for sure if you have an STI is to get tested. You can get an STI from having sex with someone who has no symptoms. Just like you, that person might not even know he or she has an STI.

NUDC and NKDC offer anonymous, confidential, and affordable STI tests. This means that no one has to find out you’ve been tested.

We offer both screening tests to detect and diagnose if you have an STI as well as more advanced tests to help you manage the infection. Visit an NHDIC facility close to you.

Where can I get tested?

We offer both screening tests to detect and diagnose if you have an STI as well as more advanced tests to help you manage the infection. Visit an NHDIC facility close to you.

Can STIs be treated?

Your doctor can prescribe medicine to cure some STIs, like chlamydia and gonorrhoea. Other STIs like hepatitis B, HIV and herpes can’t be cured but you can take medicine to help with the symptoms.

If you are ever treated for an STI, be sure to finish all of your medicine, even if you feel better before you finish it all. Ask the doctor or nurse about testing and treatment for your partner too. You and your partner should avoid having sex until you’ve both been treated. Otherwise, you may continue to pass the STI back and forth. It is possible to get an STI again (after you’ve been treated) if you have sex with someone who has an STI.

What happens if I don’t treat an STI?

Some curable STIs can be dangerous if they aren’t treated. For example, if left untreated, chlamydia and gonorrhoea can lead to infertility in both women and men. You also increase your chances of getting HIV if you have an untreated STI. Some STIs, like HIV, can be fatal if left untreated. 

What if my partner or I have an incurable STI?

If you are living with an STI, it’s important to tell your partner before you have sex. Although it may be uncomfortable to talk about STIs, open and honest conversation can help your partner make informed decisions to protect his or her health.

Quick facts about allergies

• An allergic reaction is an overreacting immune system response to substances that are typically not harmful.
• Childhood allergies can be outgrown.
• Most food allergies are reactions to various proteins.
• Epinephrine is the emergency treatment for an allergic reaction, especially the severe kind.
• Knowing and avoiding triggers that cause the allergic reaction is the best way to manage your allergy.

If you suspect that you may have an allergy it is best to know the cause of the allergic reaction. Visit NUDC or NKDC for your allergy test needs. 

What are allergies?

Allergies occur as a result of your immune system overreacting to one or more substances that are not typically harmful to your body. The severity of these allergic reactions varies per individual and could show as swelling, skin irritation, breakouts, sneezing, coughing, itching or in more life-threatening situations as choking, medically referred to as anaphylaxis.

Why do allergic reactions happen?

Allergic reactions do not generally occur at first exposure. When a person is first exposed, the immune system produces specific antibodies in response to these substances. These antibodies label the substances it interacts with as either harmful or beneficial. Reactions occur where antibodies classify substances as harmful.

When there is a second exposure to the same substance, antibodies are again produced in large quantities which leads to the breakdown of mast cells that contain histamine. The release of this histamine is what triggers the allergy. These substances are referred to as “allergens”.

Types of allergies

Drug allergies

Only 5-10% of drug reactions are actual allergic reactions.

Medications most likely to cause or trigger drug allergies are:

• Antibiotics, such as penicillin
• Aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications, such as ibuprofen
• Anticonvulsants
• Monoclonal antibody therapy
• Chemotherapy

Dust allergies

Dust allergies can be triggered by:

• Dust mites
• Pollen
• Mold
• Cockroaches
• Pet hair/furs
• Feathers

Food allergies

Although any food may cause an allergic reaction, foods more likely to cause an allergic reaction are:

• Eggs
• Wheat
• Milk
• Peanuts
• Tree nuts (Pistachio, Hazelnuts, Almonds, etc.)
• Shellfish
• Soy
• Fish
• Sesame & mustard seeds

Gluten allergy, food intolerance and Celiac disease

Celiac disease and food intolerance are both digestion related issues. The major difference between the two is that:

• Celiac disease is hereditary while food intolerance is not.
• Celiac disease occurs from eating food with gluten content, while food intolerance could be triggered any specific food your body considers harmful.

Want to speak to someone about a food allergy or a possible food intolerance test? Complete the ‘Book An Appointment’ form and one of our agents will contact you with more information.

Pet allergies

Pets are fun to have around and great for companionship. It becomes stressful to realise that you may be allergic to your favourite pet. The good news is that you don’t need to give up pets entirely to manage a pet allergy.

There is no true hypoallergenic breed of pet.

Other symptoms include:

• Pain, redness and swelling at the contact point
• Peeling or blistering skin
• Hives
• Swelling of the tongue, throat, and mouth
• Dizziness
• Runny or stuffy nose
• Red, itchy or teary eyes
• Wheezing, coughing, tightness in the chest and shortness of breath
• Itching, skin rash

Skin allergies

A skin allergy is an allergic reaction that causes skin conditions. It tends to appear on the skin as a rash. The most common allergic skin reactions are:

• Hives
• Eczema
• Contact dermatitis

Anaphylaxis

Identifying and treating anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis occurs in severe cases of an allergic reaction where the body enters a state of shock. Its impact is quite intense and where unattended can result in a coma, damaged body organs, and in worse case scenarios, loss of life.

Symptoms of Anaphylaxis include:

• unexplained anxiety
• tingling in the palms of the hand, soles of the feet, and lips
• swollen tongue, throat, mouth, and face
• difficulty breathing
• rapid but weak pulse
• low blood pressure
• sense of dread or doom
• vomiting or diarrhoea
• confusion or disorientation
• loss of consciousness
• a heart attack, etc.

Want to speak to someone about a possible allergy or the tests that NHDIC offers? Contact us today and one of our agents will provide you with more information.

The difference between blood group and blood genotype

Blood groups and genotypes are inherited from parents and both play an important role in the status of your health.

Why do I need to know my blood genotype?

The main reason is to prevent the continuation of sickle cell disease. Sickle cell disease is an inherited disease in which the red blood cells are sickle shaped. This results in a condition where these cells carry less oxygen, and they block the normal flow of blood to other parts of the body.

Sickle cell disease is very prevalent in Nigeria; this is because so many of us do not know our blood genotype.

Prevalence of sickle cell trait in Nigeria is about 25% and as long as two individuals with sickle cell trait marry, the burden of sickle cell disease will always increase.

When can I test for my blood genotype?

Blood genotype can be tested at any age. The test is usually done as part of premarital investigations (in Nigeria) but should ideally be done well before then. Couples whose genotypes are not compatible (AS vs SS), may experience difficult relationships, face severe challenges later on or even experience relationship breakup.

What do the results from the blood genotype test indicate?

Your results may show as AA, AS, AC, SS, SC, SD etc.

The results will show if you are free from sickle cell disease, a carrier, or if you have sickle cell disease, sickle cell anaemia or other possible variants.

In the past, people with variants of sickle cell disease such as SC or SD could not be detected using the qualitative method. By using the quantitative method people can now be effectively diagnosed.

The genotype of babies can be determined by genetic (DNA) method while the baby is still in the womb by simply using the mother’s blood. 

Why do I need to know my blood group?

To help yourself

It is beneficial in times of an emergency when an urgent blood transfusion is needed. By knowing your blood group, it eases the process of preparation for a transfusion and saves you from being transfused with incompatible blood. A blood transfusion with incompatible blood leads to a transfusion reaction which most of the time, when not managed properly, can lead to death.

This is the reason for having your blood type/group filled on your driving license.

To help your family

Knowing your blood group can prevent haemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn baby. Haemolytic disease is a deadly disease which is as a result of ABO/Rh D incompatibility between the husband and wife. When both partners know their respective blood groups, couples can consult with a doctor to discuss the methods that are available today to prevent and manage this disease.

To help others

One of the most valuable reasons to know your blood group is to help others by being a voluntary blood donor. It is especially important for people with very rare blood groups.

Being a voluntary blood donor is beneficial to you and the society as you have your health status checked freely at every voluntary donation while at the same time helping those in need of blood.

If you don’t know your blood group, please check it today. You never know when not knowing it is a matter between life and death.

Breaking the stigma of HIV

HIV is often feared and highly stigmatised in Nigeria due to a lack of information about the condition. Significant advancements in this area have made it possible to manage the HIV virus, reducing the risk of spread, and giving people living with HIV a chance to live a healthy life.

NHDIC supports the United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS’ (UNAIDS) 90-90-90 targets. 90% of HIV positive people know their status, 90% of those diagnosed are on treatment, and 90% of those on treatment are virally suppressed. Knowing your HIV status will empower you to take action.

About HIV

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The virus affects humans by attacking the body’s immune system, weakening it, and making it unable to fight infections and other diseases. The immune system is the body’s defence against undesirable invasions, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. When the immune system is compromised, it is at risk of not fighting off illnesses, from as mild as a common cold to more dangerous conditions such as cancer.

When the immune system deteriorates to critically unhealthy levels, the condition is known as AIDS, an acronym for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Usually, this happens where HIV is left untreated, or it is not managed correctly. A person may be HIV positive but may not have AIDS. AIDS occurs at the late phase of HIV disease when HIV infection is not diagnosed early and treated appropriately resulting in the body not able to defend itself against infections.

Mother to child transmission

The virus can be passed from an infected pregnant mother to her unborn child or during childbirth, and while breastfeeding. It is advisable to consult your doctor if you are an HIV positive, expectant mum. The doctor can assist in managing your HIV and stop transmission to your unborn baby. The earlier treatment begins, the less likely the chances of passing the virus to the baby. If you are pregnant and you do not know your HIV status, it is advisable to get tested and to protect your baby from contracting the condition.

FAQs

How does the infection spread?

The virus is generally spread during unprotected sexual intercourse and other high-risk practices such as sharing needles among drug users. Blood transfusion can also spread the virus if the blood is infected and not adequately screened. Body fluids that carry the virus are:

• Semen and seminal fluids
• Rectal fluids
• Vaginal fluids
• Blood
• Breast milk

What puts me at risk?

• Unprotected sex, especially with someone whose HIV status you do not know
• Rape
• Multiple sexual partners
• Sharing drug needles
• Exposure to open wounds of an infected person
• Having a partner who has tested positive for the virus
• Occupational risk – some jobs carry a high risk of coming into contact with HIV such as surgeons, doctors, nurses, paramedics, sex workers, and lab scientists.
• Babies of HIV infected mothers

The most common method of contracting HIV is through unprotected sexual intercourse, whether oral, anal or vaginal.

Click here to read more about other STIs that can be contracted during unprotected sex. 

What happens if my result is positive?

Symptoms of the infection may be mistaken for other illnesses such as malaria or the flu, and often there are no visible signs. Common symptoms are:

• Fever and night sweats
• Tiredness
• Headache
• Sore throat
• Thrush
• Diarrhoea

HIV positive means that you have been tested for the virus and a proper interpretation of the result confirms that you have the virus in your blood. A screening test may produce a false positive result or cannot detect the virus if it is within the window period since you contracted the virus. It is advisable to do a confirmatory test that is more sensitive in these instances. Only once these results have been confirmed can you be sure of your HIV status.

I have been diagnosed with HIV. What next?

1. Be calm. HIV can be managed.
2. A second test will be required to determine the number of viruses in your body – a quantification test.
3. Speak to a doctor who can advise you on your treatment regimen. Before treatment can start, you will need to do two tests – a CD4 count and HIV RNA viral load.
4. Once these results are available, your doctor will put you on your treatment based on established protocols.
5. Many organisations offer free HIV treatment, so you do not have to worry about the cost of treatment.
6. Once you start your treatment, you have to be diligent and take your medication every day.
7. Your doctor will advise you how often you need to do tests to monitor your condition.

The aim of treating HIV is to keep the viral load at a very low level. These levels are measured with sophisticated laboratory tests that measure the amount of HIV genetic material (HIV RNA) in your blood.

How do I protect myself?

Although there is no cure for the virus, the best way to prevent getting it is to stay protected. Some tips to consider include:

• Practice safe sex:
• Always use a condom during sex. This also helps to protect you against other STIs
• Know the status of your sexual partner, especially if you participate in unprotected sex
• Get tested regularly
• Do not engage in risky behaviour like sharing drug needles
• Ensure that blood used for transfusion is properly screened
• For those at risk due to occupational exposure, ensure that extra caution is taken on the job.

Being diagnosed with HIV is not a death sentence. It can be managed like any other chronic condition such as diabetes or hypertension. You can live a normal life provided that you take your medication called antiretroviral therapy (ART) daily as prescribed by your doctor.

Living with HIV

Many people who are diagnosed with HIV become depressed, withdraw from their family and friends, and believe that they are going to die. Others refuse to accept that they are positive and reject treatment. HIV does not have to stop you from living your best life.

A person who is HIV positive can live a healthy, quality life provided that you take your HIV medication daily as prescribed and stay in regular medical care. Routine tests will monitor the progress of your treatment and give you peace of mind that the virus is under control.

Speak to your doctor for more information or visit an HIV centre near you. 

PrEP and PEP

PrEP is an acronym for Pre Exposure Prophylaxis. It is a drug used as a preventive measure to reduce the chance of infection. It is often prescribed to:

• Persons with HIV positive partners
• Pregnant women with the virus, to reduce mother to child transmission
• People engaging in risky behaviour like sharing drug needles
• Sex workers and high-risk occupational workers

PEP stands for Post Exposure Prophylaxis and is a series of pills recommended as an emergency response for persons who have been recently exposed to the virus. You should consider this therapy if:

• You have been raped
• Had unsafe sex with someone whose status you do not know
• Engaged in other activity that put you at risk of contracting the virus

Consult a doctor for proper guidance on using PEP therapy. It is best to begin treatment within 48 hours of exposure.

The kidneys are the two bean shaped organs in the renal system that are primarily responsible for filtering waste out of the blood. It also helps to filter blood before it is sent back to the heart and controls blood pressure. In addition, they function to remove extra fluid from the blood which is excreted in the form of urine.

What causes renal failure?

A kidney failure occurs when either one or both kidneys are unable to function optimally. This could happen suddenly as it is with acute renal failure (usually within two days) or gradually, over a period as it is with chronic kidney failure.

Acute renal failure or acute kidney injury is likely curable if treatment is received immediately and where there are no other underlying health conditions with capacity to negatively impact the kidney. Chronic kidney failure on the other hand is more likely manageable than curable.

When the kidneys do not function optimally, waste will accumulate in the blood and cause an imbalance in the chemical properties of the blood. This in turn adversely affects the entire body system.

Quite often, kidney failure tends to occur due to previously existing health conditions that negatively impacted the kidneys. These conditions range from diabetes to high blood pressure and complications due to Urinary Tract Infections.

The most common health condition that results in kidney failure is Diabetes, followed by high blood pressure.

Kidney failure is regarded as the last and most severe stage of chronic kidney disease.

What are the symptoms of kidney failure?

Sometimes, there are no symptoms, and your doctor may discover the kidney failure while running other non-related tests. At other times you may experience some of the signs below, depending on the severity of the kidney failure, how quickly it happens and the reasons for it.

Kidney failure may affect either one or both kidneys. Where only one fails or gets diseased, it can be removed, and the healthy kidney will have normal renal function. However, where the damage affects both kidneys, a kidney transplant is required.

• Peeing less than normal
• Swelling in your legs, ankles, and feet (caused by your body holding on to fluid)
• Drowsiness or feeling very tired
• Shortness of breath
• Itching
• Joint pain, swelling
• Loss of appetite
• Confusion
• Throwing up or feeling like you are going to
• Chest pain or pressure
• Muscle twitching
• Seizures or coma (in severe cases)
• Stomach and back pain
• Fever
• Rash
• Nosebleed

What causes renal failure?

Generally, renal failure may occur due to toxic exposure to environmental pollutants or certain medications, certain acute and chronic diseases, severe dehydration and kidney trauma.

More specifically, the kidneys may lose functionality for 3 major reasons:

1. Blood flow to the kidneys has been blocked.
2. Urine flow out of the kidneys has been blocked.
3. Something has caused direct damage on the kidneys
   

Who is at risk for kidney failure?

Quite often, renal failure occurs due to the impact of an underlying health condition. This makes persons in the categories below have an increased risk of developing renal failure.

• You’ve been hospitalized for a long time, especially in intensive care.
• You have diabetes.
• You’re elderly.
• You have coronary artery disease.
• You have heart failure or high blood pressure.
• You have chronic kidney or liver disease.

How is kidney failure diagnosed?

A diagnosis usually begins with a physical examination, then urine, blood and kidney tests will be recommended.

Blood tests:

Creatinine – This is a naturally occurring waste material found in the blood that is produced from muscle activity which is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys. An increased level of this waste in the blood usually indicates a kidney malfunction.

Urea Nitrogen – This is another waste product found in the blood that occurs as a result of protein broken down from food. An increased level of this in the blood also indicates a problem with the kidneys.

Urine tests:

The presence of urine, protein, electrolytes and other substances in the blood helps in indicating the cause of renal failure.

Imaging tests:

These tests help to give a clearer picture of what is happening to your kidneys. Some tests, like ultrasonography or a CT scan, can show whether your kidneys are enlarged or there’s a blockage in your urine flow. An angiogram can tell your doctor if the arteries or veins that lead to your kidneys are blocked. An MRI can show the same thing.

Treatment of kidney failure

Treatment of kidney failure will depend on the reason for the condition. Your doctor will recommend a treatment option based on your diagnosis. Some major treatment options include:

Dialysis

This treatment option involves the use of a Dialysis machine to filter and purify the blood. The process does not cure kidney failure although it helps with its management. This option relives the kidney of its functions until it heals properly. 

Kidney transplant

This option requires a donor kidney to replace the damaged kidney. Where the transplant is successful, the kidneys begin their function optimally. Although, additional medication like immunosuppressants is required so that the body does not fight against the new kidney.

Medication

Medication will be prescribed in this regard, majorly to help regulate the amount of potassium, and phosphorous in the blood. This does not directly heal the kidneys but helps reduce the impact of kidney failure to the kidneys. 

Diet

The recommendations on diet usually depend on the stage of kidney failure and each individual’s health. The guidelines managing diet in this regard functions to regulate protein, phosphorous, and potassium levels in the blood

Kidney failure and diabetes

The most common health condition that results in kidney failure is Diabetes, followed by high blood pressure. This damage can become worse over time. Diabetic nephropathy, or kidney damage caused by type 1 or type 2 diabetes, can’t be reversed. Your risk for diabetic nephropathy increases the longer you live with the condition which is why proper management of your diabetic condition is very important.

Kidney failure and alcohol

Due to the fact that the body does not metabolize alcohol quickly, there is extra workload placed on the kidneys to filter alcohol from the bloodstream. In addition, beer and wine contain a large amount of phosphorous which can cause heart problems if it accumulates in your body and the kidneys are unable to filter it out. 

Is kidney failure preventable?

The best approach to preventing kidney failure is to limit your risk to developing it. Some tips to follow are

• Using medication in proper dosage. This is because a high concentration of drugs in the system can overload the kidney, making it work more than it should.
• Properly managing underlying health conditions, especially Diabetes and High blood pressure
• Maintaining a healthy lifestyle and doing regular general health checks

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Why is the thyroid important?

The thyroid hormones regulate the brain and nerve function and development, plus the function of the skin, hair, eyes, heart, kidneys, and intestines. It also regulates our body temperature, muscle growth and strength and has a significant impact on fertility and digestion.

The thyroid is critical to the body’s functions in both men and women, though women are at higher risk of developing thyroid problems. One in eight women will be affected by a thyroid disorder during the course of their lives.

When the thyroid gland produces too little thyroid hormone (underactive), the condition is called hypothyroidism. When the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone (overactive), the condition is called hyperthyroidism.

What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?

Hypothyroidism has many symptoms that can vary from person to person. Some common symptoms of hypothyroidism include:

• Balding in men
• Dry, thinning hair or even hair loss
• Decreased concentration
• Memory problems
• Fatigue
• A puffy, swollen face
• Goiter (enlarged thyroid)
• Reduced heart rate
• High cholesterol
• Joint and muscle pain
• Constipation
• Weight gain
• Severe PMS
• Heavy or irregular menstrual periods
• Fertility problems
• Low sex drive or erectile dysfunction in men
• Depression
• Trouble tolerating cold
• Dry skin

Because hypothyroidism develops slowly, many people don’t notice symptoms of the disease for months or even years.

Many of these symptoms, especially fatigue and weight gain, are common and don’t always mean that someone has a thyroid problem.

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

Too much thyroid hormone speeds up most functions of the body.

Symptoms include:

• Anxiety, nervousness
• Irritability, mood swings
• Difficulty sleeping and tiredness
• Goiter (enlarged thyroid)
• Shortness of breath
• Heart palpitations
• Muscle weakness
• Excessive sweating
• Frequent bowel movements
• Weight loss despite a good, or even increased, appetite
• Delayed puberty in girls
• Infertility in women
• Irregular menstrual periods in women
• Tremors (shaky hands)
• Soft nails
• Always feeling warm
• Moist, smooth skin
• Difficulty climbing stairs

What causes thyroid dysfunction?

The most common causes of both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism are auto-immune disorders. These are disorders in which the body produces auto-antibodies that destroy one or several other parts of the body. Other auto-immune disorders are Type 1 Diabetes, Rheumatoid Arthritis and Celiac disease.

Hyperthyroidism is linked to Graves’ disease, a condition that stimulates the thyroid to release an excess of thyroid hormone. Hypothyroidism is most commonly linked with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Other causes of hypothyroidism may be as a result of:

• Various infections
• Congenital hypothyroidism, or hypothyroidism that is present at birth
• Surgical removal of part or all of the thyroid
• Radiation treatment of the thyroid
• Some medicines

What other health problems could I have because of hypothyroidism?

Hypothyroidism can contribute to high cholesterol. Individuals with high cholesterol should get tested for hypothyroidism. Rarely, severe, untreated hypothyroidism may lead to myxedema coma, an extreme form of hypothyroidism in which the body’s functions slow to the point that it becomes life threatening. Myxedema coma requires immediate medical treatment.

How do doctors diagnose thyroid conditions?

Your doctor will take a medical history and do a physical exam but will need to do some blood tests to diagnose thyroid conditions. Many symptoms are the same as those of other diseases, so doctors usually can’t diagnose thyroid conditions based on symptoms alone.

Because thyroid conditions can cause fertility problems, women who have trouble getting pregnant often get tested for thyroid problems.

The thyroid is critical to the body’s functions in both men and women, though women are at higher risk of developing thyroid problems.

For the thyroid to remain healthy, it needs iodine to produce hormones, but just a little. Too much iodine can actually make the thyroid produce less hormones.

The best way to get iodine is through eating healthy foods, such as seafood and dairy products. You can also get it by seasoning your food with iodized salt.

A Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) is an infection of one or more parts of the urinary tract. It occurs when bacteria, usually from the skin or rectum, enters the urinary tract. The human urinary system consists of two tracts, the upper tract (kidneys (pyelonephritis) and ureter) and the lower tract (bladder (cystitis) and urethra (urethritis)). UTIs occurring in the upper tract system tend to be more severe than those occurring in the lower tract.

Children are susceptible to developing a UTI when there are factors of poor hygiene, especially while potty training.

UTI symptoms

General symptoms associated with UTI are:

• Needing to urinate suddenly or more frequently than usual
• Pain or a burning sensation when urinating
• Smelly or cloudy urine
• Blood in urine
• Pain in the lower tummy area / abdomen
• Feeling tired and unwell
• Upper back and side (flank) pain
• High fever
• Shaking and chills
• Nausea
• Vomiting

What puts me at risk?

Some factors increase your chances of developing UTI. They include:

• A previous UTI
• Sexual activity, especially a new sexual partner
• Changes in the bacteria that live inside the vagina (vaginal flora), for example caused by menopause or the use of spermicides
• Pregnancy
• Age (older adults and young children are more likely to get UTIs)
• Structural problems in the urinary tract, such as prostate enlargement
• Poor hygiene, particularly in children who are potty-training
• Certain types of birth-control methods like diaphragms
• Urinary tract abnormalities
• Blockages in the urinary tract like kidney stones
• A suppressed immune system
• Catheter usage
• A recent urinary procedure

Diagnosing UTI

Uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTIs or cystitis) mainly occur in non-pregnant women who do not have any abnormality of the urinary tract. Acute uncomplicated cystitis (bladder infection) and pyelonephritis (kidney infection) are most commonly caused by E. coli (70 to 95% of cases) and S. saprophyticus (5 to 10% of cases).

Complicated UTIs occur in patients with underlying abnormalities of the urinary tract. E. coli is the most common pathologen (20 to 50% of cases), but a wider range of bacteria (e.g., Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas species) also cause infection. Symptomatic UTIs caused by yeasts (fungal infection) such as Candida are uncommon.

UTIs in men are not common, although more likely to occur with increasing age and abnormalities of the urinary tract. Prostate infection (prostatitis) should be considered in men. Measuring the PSA level may be useful.

If you experience any signs or symptoms of UTI, it is best to consult your doctor. A diagnosis begins with a physical examination and your doctor may recommend laboratory testing.

Urine microscopy, culture & sensitivity

Urine is one of the body’s waste products. It is produced in the kidneys and collected in the bladder until a person urinates. Urine in the bladder is normally sterile (containing no organisms), however, if bacteria or yeasts are introduced into the urinary tract, they can multiply and cause a urinary tract infection.

High Vaginal Swab (HVS)

The HVS (High Vaginal Swab) test is one that involves the use of a sterile, moist cotton swab stick to obtain a sample of discharge from the vagina for microscopy, culture and sensitivity to test for the presence of candidiasis infection, bacterial vaginosis and trichomonas vaginalis, etc, and the sensitive antibiotic for the treatment in the Laboratory.

What happens if an UTI is left untreated?

If your infection is not treated, sometimes it can move from the lower urinary tract to the upper urinary tract and infect the kidney itself, and possibly, enter the bloodstream, causing septicaemia. Symptoms of septicaemia include fever, chills, elevated white blood cell count, and fatigue. Your doctor will often use blood cultures to determine if you have septicaemia and will prescribe antibiotics accordingly. Other complications are:

• Untreated UTI infections can become recurrent, especially in women who experience two or more UTIs in a six-month period.
• It can lead to permanent kidney damage (Renal failure) as a result of acute or chronic kidney infection (pyelonephritis).
• Pose an increased risk in pregnant women of delivering low birth weight or premature infants.
• Urethral narrowing (stricture) in men from recurrent urethritis, previously seen with gonococcal urethritis.

Can UTIs be prevented?

• Drink plenty of fluid, especially water.
• Wipe from the front to the back after urinating and passing out stool, especially for females. This helps to prevent bacteria from spreading into the urethra.
• Empty your bladder soon after intercourse.
• Avoid potentially irritating feminine products as they may likely irritate the urethra.
• Consult with your doctor to advise on the best birth control methods if you use diaphragms or unlubricated spermicide treated condoms as these can contribute to bacterial growth.
• For children, ensure that they are potty trained in a hygienic manner.

Women are 8 times more likely to have an UTI compared to men.

How are UTIs treated?

Most UTIs can be treated and cured with antibiotics, especially where it is detected early. Speak to your doctor when you suspect that your symptoms are consistent with a UTI.

A complete blood count (CBC) and blood culture may be required in addition to the urine test where your doctor suspects you might have an upper tract infection.

In cases of recurrent STIs, tests like an ultrasound, intravenous pyelogram (IVP), cystoscopy or computerized tomography (CT) scan may be recommended by your doctor to determine the complication best treatment approach.

Remember to take your medication as prescribed. Even when you feel better before the course is completed, more so because the infection could recur worse than before.